Suncity Rising; Pass of the North Remembered

Geological and Prehistoric Foundations

The history of the El Paso region begins in the distant geological past, more than two million years ago, when Lake Cabeza de Vaca covered what are now El Paso, Ciudad Juárez, and most of the Lower Valley. This ancient lake served as a deposit for the ancestral Rio Grande until approximately 75,000 BCE, when the lake drained into the Gulf of Mexico. Around 50,000 BCE, the river carved out what would become known as “El Paso del Norte” – the Pass of the North – creating the natural corridor through the Franklin Mountains that would prove crucial to human settlement and trade for millennia to come.

Pre-Columbian Era and Native Peoples (10,000 BCE – 1581 CE)

Early Human Settlement

Archaeological evidence at sites such as the Keystone Wetlands and Hueco Tanks indicates that humans first settled in the El Paso region around 10,000 BCE. These early inhabitants were drawn to areas with plentiful water and foliage, establishing a pattern of settlement that would persist throughout the region’s history. The name “hueco” itself is Spanish for a hollowed-out cavity used for holding water or pounding maize, reflecting the area’s long association with water collection and agriculture.

Agricultural Development

Around 400 CE, the native peoples of the area began transitioning from purely nomadic lifestyles to more settled agricultural communities. They constructed pithouse villages and began experimenting with crops, particularly maize. Over the centuries, these communities grew increasingly sophisticated, building larger and more complex villages. By 1200 CE, they were living in pueblos and had developed a heavy reliance on agricultural crops for sustenance, while maintaining extensive trade networks that connected them with peoples across the American Southwest and northern Mexico.

Remarkably, around 1450 CE, these pueblos were abandoned, and the remaining population reverted to the mobile hunting and gathering lifestyle of their ancestors. The reasons for this dramatic shift remain a subject of archaeological debate.

1767 map of the Presidio de Janos on the northern frontier. Image in the Public Domain.

Early Spanish Exploration (1535-1595)

The First Europeans

The first Europeans to possibly traverse the El Paso area were Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and his three companions, survivors of the failed Narváez expedition to Florida. They passed through the region in 1535 or 1536, though their exact route remains debated by historians. Their journey marked the beginning of European awareness of this strategic location.

Francisco Vázquez de Coronado’s expedition of 1540-1542 explored vast territories across the American Southwest, though it’s uncertain whether his party specifically passed through El Paso.

Documented Spanish Expeditions

The first definitively recorded Spanish expedition to reach El Paso was the Rodríguez-Chamuscado entrada of 1581. Hernán Gallegos, the expedition’s chronicler, described the area south of present-day El Paso as suitable for ranches and cultivation, though he reported no people living in that specific location.

The Espejo-Beltrán expedition of 1582-1583 provided more detailed observations. Antonio de Espejo camped in an area south of El Paso, which he described enthusiastically in his chronicles:

“This area has very good land and climate, with buffalo herds nearby, abundant game and birds, mineral deposits, many forests and pasture lands, rich natural deposits of salt, and abundant water in large marshes and pools.”

During this expedition, Espejo’s party encountered Sumas who brought them such large quantities of mesquite, corn, and fish that they feasted for three days. His account provides our first detailed description of the indigenous peoples’ generosity and the region’s abundance.

The Oñate Entrada and Spanish Colonization (1595-1610)

Don Juan de Oñate’s Commission

In 1595, King Philip II of Spain appointed Don Juan de Oñate as governor, captain general, caudillo, discoverer, and pacifier of New Mexico—a territory that had not yet been fully conquered or settled. The son of a wealthy silver mine developer, Oñate arranged to finance his own expedition, assembling 400 soldiers, 130 families, 1,000 head of cattle, 1,000 sheep, and 150 mares for the arduous journey across the Chihuahuan Desert.

The Historic Journey

In late January 1598, Oñate’s expedition departed from Santa Barbara in southern Chihuahua, Mexico. Rather than following the established northbound route along the Río Conchos, Oñate chose what he believed would be a shortcut directly across the desert. This decision nearly proved fatal, as the company struggled for survival during four days without shelter or fresh water while desperately searching for “el paso por las montañas”—a pass through the mountains.

To their immense relief, they reached the Rio Grande and followed it upstream to present-day San Elizario, Texas.

The First Thanksgiving – Elevate El Paso

In an act of thanksgiving for their survival, Oñate arranged for a feast and invited the local Mansos to join them. The banquet included fish, duck, geese, and supplies from the expedition’s stores. This thanksgiving celebration occurred 23 years before the more famous Plymouth colony thanksgiving, making it the first recorded thanksgiving in what would become the United States.

Continued Journey and Establishment

On May 1, 1598, the entrada continued up the Rio Grande. Within three days, they encountered their first native people, who approached with bows and arrows but offered the peaceful greeting that gave the Mansos their name. The Mansos made the Sign of the Cross, which some interpreted as evidence that earlier Spanish expeditions had passed through the area. They helped the Spanish cross the river at a ford they commonly used.

When the expedition reached present-day El Paso, they found the river flowing through a natural break in the mountains. This gap, which Oñate named “El Paso del Río del Norte”—the pass of the river of the north—would serve as the Spanish gateway to the West.

 View of the Pass through the mountains (from Emory 1857)

Early Mission Period and Colonial Development (1598-1680)

Oñate’s New Mexico Colony

Oñate continued into present-day New Mexico, where he established the first European settlements in the region. He sent scouting parties in all directions searching for gold and silver, but they returned empty-handed. Without precious metals to exploit, the expedition fell into disarray.

Oñate’s rule became increasingly harsh. His soldiers demanded tribute from the Pueblo peoples of New Mexico, and when the people of Acoma Pueblo refused and revolted, Oñate responded with extreme brutality, killing 800 people, enslaving 500, and ordering the left foot cut off all men over 25 years of age.

Formal charges were brought against Oñate for mismanagement, claiming he had become oblivious to colonists’ needs and had falsified reports to the King about the expedition’s findings. In 1607, Oñate resigned command of New Mexico and returned to Spain to face these charges.

Establishment of the Mission System

After the founding of Santa Fe in 1609, El Paso became a critical waystation on the Camino Real, the vital north-south trade route connecting the Mexican interior with the Spanish settlements and missions of New Mexico. Franciscan Father Custodian Alonso de Benavides spent considerable time in the El Paso area during the early 17th century and recommended establishing a mission and presidio among the Mansos to convert and settle them, while also guarding the highway to New Mexico and developing local mines and farms.

Between 1656 and 1659, the systematic conversion of the Mansos, Sumas, and Janos began in earnest. Fray García de San Francisco, Fray Francisco de Salazar, and a group of Christian Piros from New Mexico began aggregating most of the Manso rancherías into settled communities.

Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe

In 1659, they established Mission Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe del Río del Norte de los Mansos on the south side of the Rio Grande in present-day Ciudad Juárez. This mission, strategically located at the pass of the Rio Grande, became the mother church for the entire El Paso region. Over the following years, crude early structures were replaced with more permanent buildings.

At the church’s dedication ceremony in 1668, 400 Mansos were present. The mission served not only local Mansos but also Piros, Sumas, Tanos, Tiguas, Tompiros, Apaches, and Jumanos who had been forced to flee their homelands due to famine, disease, and warfare. By 1680, the mission ministered to over 2,000 native people. 

In 1665, Fray Garci and Fray Benito de la Natividad established additional missions: San Francisco de la Torre for Sumans and La Soledad for the Janos, creating a network of religious and administrative centers throughout the region. 

Agricultural and Economic Development

Spanish colonization brought significant changes to the regional economy and landscape. The Spanish and indigenous peoples constructed a complex irrigation system, including a massive earthen dam, which made possible flourishing agriculture in the desert enviroment. Vineyards and ruit orcahrds constituded the bulk of regional production, with the wines and brandies of El Paso gaining recognition throughout New Spain. 

The Spanish Crown and local authorities made several land concessions to encourage agricultural production on the northern bank of the river in present-day El Paso, including the Bracito Grant. However, frequent Apache raids discouraged settlement and production north of the river, with the Rio Grande serving as a natural barrier. 

Remnants of the church of San Gregorio de Abó II, NPS Photo by Park Guide Alex Arnold

Historic American Buildings Survey, creator Saurel, Christine, historian, West Texas Council of Governments

Failed Reconquest Attempts

Governor Antonio de Otermín made an unsuccessful attempt to reconquer New Mexico during the winter of 1681-1682. On his return journey to El Paso, Otermín stopped at Isleta and burned the Tigua Pueblo there, taking 385 residents hostage. Only 305 survived the forced march to El Paso.

The Spanish government, recognizing that reconquest would not happen quickly, made arrangements for an indefinite stay and established El Paso as the temporary capital of New Mexico. Because they were considered temporary settlers, the New Mexican refugees were permitted to plant crops wherever convenient, leading to encroachment on lands belonging to the Mansos, Sumas, and Janos.

New Mission Establishments

In 1682, Otermín attempted to stabilize the volatile situation by founding three new missions specifically for the refugees:

• Corpus Christi de la Ysleta (Ysleta del Sur) for the Tiguas
• San Antonio de Senecú for the Piros and Tompiros
• Nuestra Señora de la Limpia Conceptión del Socorro for the Piros, Tanos, and Jemez

These missions, particularly Socorro, strongly resembled the New Mexico missions in their construction materials and incorporation of native decorative elements.

White stucco chapel facade with bell tower and cross at Senecú, Ciudad Juárez.

Period of Conflict and Reorganization (1683-1692)

Government Reorganization

In 1683, newly elected Governor Jironza Petríz de Cruzate established the Presidio de Nuestra Señora del Pilar y Glorioso San José at San Pedro de Alcántara. Working with Fray Nicolas López, he reorganized both Spanish and native settlements, establishing two new missions for the Sumas: Santa Gertrudis del Ojito de Samalayuca and Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe de los Sumas.

The reorganization created a complex settlement pattern with distinct communities: Spanish colonists lived at San Lorenzo, Ysleta, San Pedro, and the new settlement at the presidio; Piros resided at Socorro and Senecú; Tompiros at Senecú; Sumas at various missions; Mansos at Guadalupe de los Mansos; Tiguas at Sacramento and Ysleta; Janos at La Soledad; and Tanos and Jemez at Socorro.

Wall art at the Tigua Indian Cultural Center at the Ysleta del Sur Pueblo, which celebrates more than 300 years of tribal history in El Paso, Texas. Highsmith, Carol M., 1946-, photographer (Public Domain) source

The El Paso Revolt of 1684

The establishment of missions and presidio did little to quell native unrest. Widespread famine during the winter of 1683-1684, caused by the strain that the influx of refugees had placed on local resources, pushed the indigenous peoples beyond their breaking point.

In spring 1684, the Mansos revolted alongside the Sumas, Janos, Julimes, Apaches, Conchos, and other groups. The Piros, Tiguas, and a small number of Mansos remained loyal to the Spanish. The revolt was particularly devastating because it involved many young men aged 20-30 who had been inspired by the success of the New Mexico Pueblo Revolt.

The settlements of Socorro, Santa Gertrudis, and San Francisco participated in the revolt, and most missionized Mansos deserted El Paso to join unconverted Mansos and Sumas at their traditional rancherías.

Consolidation and Defense

The revolt was so devastating that Cruzate was forced to move the Presidio San José closer to Guadalupe de los Mansos at the pass and gather all loyal Spanish and native people around it for protection. The presidio was renamed Presidio Paso del Rio, and a Spanish settlement called Paso del Norte grew up around it.

The missions of San Lorenzo, Socorro, Senecú, and Ysleta were relocated to the area near the presidio for safety, while San Pedro, San José, and Guadalupe de los Sumas were abandoned. Santa Gertrudis, San Francisco, and Sacramento had been destroyed in the revolt and were not rebuilt.

Driven by hunger, some Sumas returned to Guadalupe de los Sumas late in 1684, but many Mansos continued their revolt until 1686. Most participants in the revolt never returned to the El Paso missions, and their shared experience of resistance led to the development of a common identity as “Apache”—which came to mean hostile bands opposing Spanish rule.

Reconquest of New Mexico

In 1691, the mission of Nuestro Padre San Francisco was established for the Mansos who remained in El Paso. The following year saw the establishment of San Diego de los Sumas to replace the destroyed Guadalupe de los Sumas.

In spring and summer 1692, newly elected Governor Diego de Vargas, with 40 Spanish soldiers and 50 Tigua and Piro warriors, successfully reconquered New Mexico. The following year, 500 Spanish and native families returned to New Mexico, significantly depleting the populations of the El Paso settlements.

The native population was further reduced at the end of the century by a devastating smallpox epidemic that swept through the region.

Colonial Life and Development (1692-1821)

Mission Life and Cultural Synthesis

The native peoples who remained in El Paso lived in clusters of jacal structures—simple dwellings made of poles, brush, and mud—loosely arranged around central plazas near the missions. They served the Franciscan friars by working mission fields, tending gardens, bringing firewood, and performing various domestic tasks. They also worked as wage laborers, and sometimes as forced laborers, on construction projects.

Although corn remained their most important crop, mission inhabitants adopted European crops and livestock, including wheat, various fruits, cows, goats, sheep, pigs, and chickens. The success of this agricultural integration was noted by Franciscan visitor general Fray Miguel de San Juan Nepomuceno y Trigo in his 1754 report:

“The Indians of [Ysleta] have their gardens adorned with beautiful grapevines, peach trees, apple trees, and good vegetables, and the garden of the convent imitates them in providing delight to the eyes and satisfaction to the taste.”

Continuing Traditional Practices

Despite Spanish influence, the native peoples maintained many traditional practices. They continued making tools of chipped stone using raw materials from local gravel deposits and revived the earlier tradition of making brownware utility vessels from local clays. They still depended to varying degrees on wild resources such as mesquite, prickly pear, deer, rabbit, antelope, and various bird species, supplementing their diet with riverine resources like turtle, fish, and shellfish.

Ongoing Conflicts with the Sumas

The relationship between Spanish authorities and the Sumas remained volatile throughout the colonial period. In 1707, the mission of Santa María Magdalena was established for the Sumas, but they revolted against Spanish rule in 1710, then fled to the Organ Mountains to join Apache groups.

In 1726, three Suma groups were resettled at Guadalupe de los Sumas (which had been revived), Carrizal in northeastern Chihuahua, and San Lorenzo. Later that year, non-missionized Sumas revolted with the Apaches and Cholomes.

The Spanish established the mission of Nuestra Señora Santa María de la Caldas for these Sumas in 1730, but the pattern of resistance continued. The Sumas settled at the mission revolted in 1745, killing one Spaniard, and again in 1749, destroying the mission and fleeing to join other Sumas in the mountains. The mission at San Lorenzo was abandoned by the Sumas in 1754 but was resettled by a different group of Sumas in 1765.

Cathedral El Paso Del Norte (Modern-day Cd. Juarez). Jackson, William Henry, 1843-1942, photographer. Detroit Publishing Co., publisher (Public Domain) Source

In response to these threats, the Spanish government relocated the line of frontier presidios in the 1770s for more effective defense. The presidio at Paso del Norte was moved to Carrizal in 1773, and the Presidio de Nuestra Señora de las Caldas de Guajoquilla was relocated from Jiménez in northeast Chihuahua to the Valle de San Eliario in 1774.

Establishment of San Elizario

In 1789, the Presidio de San Elceario (San Elizario) was moved 60 kilometers upriver to the abandoned site of the Hacienda of Los Tiburcios. After several years of construction, the presidio and church of Nuestra Señora del Pilar y el Glorioso San José were completed in 1793.

Spanish authorities attempted to encourage peaceful Apache groups to settle around the new presidio by offering them regular rations. Some Mescalero Apaches from southern New Mexico accepted this arrangement, but many groups refused. Others feigned interest in peace only to receive rations before leaving to raid other settlements.

The failure of the frontier presidio system led the Spanish government to launch more frequent military campaigns against hostile Apache groups and to encourage different Apache bands to fight among themselves. However, this strategy backfired, causing Apache groups to increase their attacks against frontier settlements, particularly Socorro and San Elizario.

Despite frequent attacks, the settlement of San Elizario quickly grew around the presidio, becoming second only to Paso del Norte in population within the El Paso region.

Population Changes and Challenges

A major smallpox epidemic in the 1780s devastated both Spanish and native populations in El Paso, effectively reducing the Sumas to extinction as a distinct group. The disease was not brought under control until vaccinations became available in 1805.

By the start of the nineteenth century, only seven settlements remained in El Paso: Guadalupe de los Mansos, Paso del Norte, San Elizario, San Lorenzo, Senecú, Ysleta, and Socorro.

A map of New Spain, from 16⁰ to 38⁰ North latitude (Public Domain) source

Early American Presence

American traders, trappers, and adventurers began appearing in the El Paso region as early as 1804. Spanish documents curiously described these early American visitors as “españoles de Inglaterra” (Spaniards from England). Some intermarried with the area’s Hispanic elite, including Kentucky native Hugh Stephenson, who married doña Juana María de Azcárate.

Ruins of San Jose de Concordia el Alto Church, Photograph (1932)
shows the adobe ruins of the first church built (about 1850) in
El Paso by Rev. Ramon Ortiz. source

Among notable early American visitors was Lieutenant Zebulon Pike, whose 1807 expedition was captured by Spanish forces and taken to Chihuahua City. Pike’s published memoirs provided Americans with their first detailed account of the Pass of the North.

The first permanent American resident was apparently James Purcell of Illinois, who arrived in 1806. Other traders and trappers followed, including James Baird, who became a Mexican citizen and established a base for trapping operations in northern New Mexico.

Growing American Interest

By 1815, fears of American expansion led Mexican authorities to require loyalty oaths from El Paso del Norte citizens. The Texas Revolution of 1836 initially had little impact on the region, as the area was never considered part of Texas until much later, and the Texas Republic was unable to effectively occupy the vast territories it claimed along the Rio Grande to its headwaters in Colorado.

The ill-fated Texas-Santa Fe Expedition of 1841 brought American prisoners through Paso del Norte on their way to imprisonment in Chihuahua, giving local citizens their first significant exposure to Texas-American political ambitions.

Development of Anglo-Hispanic Partnerships

Hugh Stephenson acquired farmland near present-day Las Cruces, New Mexico, and after marrying into the prominent Azcárate family, established a large ranch east of the Ponce Ranch, naming it Concordia. Stephenson and fellow Kentuckian James Wiley Magoffin would play crucial roles in shaping the future of American El Paso.

A customs house was established in Paso del Norte in 1835 to regulate the increasing caravan trade traveling between Chihuahua and Santa Fe, connecting this regional trade network to markets as distant as Saint Louis, Missouri. Anglo entrepreneurs were attracted to El Paso to make their fortunes as merchants, traders, and freighters in this growing commercial network.

The Mexican-American War and American Acquisition (1846-1850)

The Coming of War

In May 1846, the forces of Mexico and the United States came to conflict over disputed territory east of the Rio Grande. President James K. Polk, with designs on the Santa Fe trade and territories extending to the west coast, instructed the Governor of Missouri to raise volunteer forces to operate alongside regular troops under General Stephen W. Kearny.

The First Regiment of Mounted Missouri Volunteers chose Alexander Doniphan, a Kentuckian, as their commanding officer. Colonel Doniphan would play a crucial role in Southwestern history and in bringing El Paso under American control.

Magoffin’s Diplomatic Role

James Wiley Magoffin played perhaps the most important role in the bloodless conquest of New Mexico, using his extensive knowledge of the region and personal relationships to convince Governor Armijo at Santa Fe to relinquish the territory without resistance. This diplomatic success allowed General Kearny to turn westward toward California, leaving Colonel Doniphan to lead his Missouri volunteers down the Rio Grande to claim the lands on the east bank of the river.

The Battle of Brazito

Alarmed by news of the American invasion, the citizens and government of Chihuahua prepared for defense. By December 26, 1846, when Doniphan and his force reached their encampment at Bracito, just above Paso del Norte, local forces had been reinforced by approximately 380 regular Mexican troops under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Luis Vidal.

The Mexican forces launched a cavalry attack against the Americans, but Doniphan’s men were not caught off guard. The Battle of Brazito was brief but decisive. The Mexican forces, approaching in traditional European-style formation, were devastated by Missouri riflemen firing from cover behind sand dunes, mesquite bushes, and wagons. The Mexican troops were forced to retreat toward El Paso del Norte.

However, defense of the town proved impossible. The retreating Mexican forces continued south, leaving the town without military protection. When Doniphan entered Paso del Norte on December 27, 1846, only a delegation of townspeople met the American forces. The El Paso region was now effectively under American control.

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

Official possession took place on February 2, 1848, with the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which officially ended the Mexican-American War. The treaty fixed the boundary between the two nations at the Rio Grande, the Gila River, and the Colorado River, extending westward to the Pacific Ocean.

All territory north of this line, known as the Mexican Cession and comprising approximately half of Mexico’s national domain, became part of the United States in exchange for $15 million. Thus, El Paso del Norte (the future Ciudad Juárez) became a border town, while the lands on the north bank of the Rio Grande became American territory.

Early American Settlements

By late 1849, aided by the California Gold Rush, five settlements had been established along the north bank of the Rio Grande:

1. Frontera – established by T. Frank White (northernmost)
2. El Molino – a flour mill founded by Simeon Hart
3. Franklin – the mercantile store of Benjamin Franklin Coons, located on ranch land he purchased from Ponce de León
4. Magoffinsville – built by veteran Chihuahua trader James Wiley Magoffin
5. Concordia – the property of Hugh Stephenson, named after his childhood home in Missouri

The three Mexican towns of Ysleta, Socorro, and San Elizario were declared to be in the United States when the Rio Grande’s 1829 course change left them on the north bank. By 1850, the bicultural, bilingual foundations of the future El Paso, Texas, were clearly established.

Territorial Period and Early Statehood (1850-1881)

Administrative Organization

Several important developments during the 1850s shaped the character of American El Paso. Franklin, the settlement on Coons’ Rancho, became the nucleus of what would become El Paso, Texas. El Paso County was established in March 1850, with San Elizario designated as the first county seat.

The United States Senate fixed the boundary between Texas and New Mexico at the thirty-second parallel in the Compromise of 1850, largely ignoring the region’s historical connections and geographical logic. This compromise transferred much of Texas’s northwestern lands to federal control, where they became parts of modern-day states including New Mexico. However, El Paso was retained by Texas, largely because local residents had recently organized county government and could claim El Paso as integral Texas territory.

Transportation and Communication Development

The establishment of transportation networks was crucial to the region’s development. The San Antonio-El Paso Road connected the area to the rest of Texas, and in 1854, a military post called “The Post opposite El Paso” (meaning opposite El Paso del Norte, across the Rio Grande) was established. This post would later become Fort Bliss.

Mail service began with the San Antonio-El Paso Mail in 1854, passing through Franklin. The San Antonio-San Diego Mail Line, the first mail coach route from the East to California, began service through Franklin in 1857, followed by the Butterfield Overland Mail in 1858.

In 1859, pioneer surveyor Anson Mills completed his plat of the town, officially naming it El Paso. This naming created endless confusion until 1888, when the town across the river changed its name from El Paso del Norte to Ciudad Juárez.

Land Grants and Development

The Stephenson-Azcárate family acquired a 900-acre tract from the Ponce de León grant in the vicinity of today’s Interstate 10 “Spaghetti Bowl” interchange. They called it “El Rancho de la Concordia” or “Stephensonville.” The Archbishop of Durango gave permission for the blessing of a private chapel there, San José de la Concordia, whose ruins persisted until the 1930s. Its cemetery became the origins of the historic Concordia Cemetery.

Historical records indicate that the first permanent agricultural enterprise north of the Rio Grande in present-day El Paso was the Ponce de León Ranch, established on land granted in 1825. Earlier efforts, such as the “lost mission” of Nuestra Señora de las Caldas and El Rancho de los Tiburcios, had been abandoned due to Indian raids and floods.

Incorporation and Consolidation

El Paso was incorporated in 1873, encompassing the small communities that had developed along the river, including Magoffinsville, Concordia, and Hart’s Mill. The town’s population began to grow steadily as word of opportunities in the West spread throughout the United States.

The Civil War Period (1861-1865)

Confederate Control

During the American Civil War, Texas, along with most other southern slave states, declared secession from the Union to join the Confederacy. The Confederacy had support from some of the area’s Anglo residents, such as Colonel Hugh Stephenson, but received far less support from Mexican residents, who constituted the majority of the population.

Confederate forces controlled Fort Bliss in 1861, but their tenure was brief. In 1862, the city was occupied by the Union California Column, which established headquarters for the 5th Regiment California Volunteer Infantry. The post remained under Union control until December 1864.

The Civil War period saw relatively little combat in the El Paso region, but it did contribute to the area’s growing reputation as a crossroads of American expansion and military activity.

Post-War Recovery

After the war’s conclusion, the town’s population began to grow more rapidly. The end of hostilities opened up new possibilities for trade and development, setting the stage for the transformative changes that would come with the railroad era.

The Tigua Land Dispossession (1874)

Historical Land Rights

The Tigua Indians had occupied at least 36 square miles of land around Ysleta since the 1680 Pueblo Revolt brought them as refugees to the El Paso region. This land had been deeded to them by King Charles V of Spain, and their rights had been reaffirmed under both Spanish and Mexican law.

Legal Manipulation and Loss

In 1874, the Texas Legislature passed “An Act to Repeal an Act to Incorporate the Town of Ysleta in El Paso County.” However, the act included a six-month delay in implementation, during which over 500 parcels of Tigua property were illegally conveyed to American settlers. The Tiguas lost almost all of their ancestral land through this legal manipulation.

The act of incorporation was reversed in 1874, but in the two months before the reversal took effect, another 254 conveyances of Tigua

The Tigua Land Dispossession (1874) – Continued

land were made to Anglo settlers, leaving the Tiguas with almost no remaining territory from their original 36-square-mile grant.

This systematic dispossession represented one of the most egregious examples of legal manipulation used to transfer Native American lands to Anglo settlers in the post-Civil War period. The Tiguas, who had maintained their community structure for nearly 200 years, were left virtually landless despite their legal rights under multiple governmental systems.

County Seat Battles and Political Development (1874-1883)

The Move to Ysleta

In 1874, the El Paso County seat was moved from San Elizario to Ysleta, where it remained until 1883. These were turbulent years marked by the San Elizario Salt War and other conflicts between Mexican residents, Anglo newcomers, the Tigua people, and Apache raiders.

The Hispanic population looked to leadership from the old Mexican clergy—particularly Spanish-born Father Antonio Borrajo—and the mercantile elite, who sought to maintain community control over local resources within the Hispanic community.

The Move to El Paso

In 1883, the county seat was moved from Ysleta to the growing town of El Paso. This decision was reached through a highly disputed election in which the counted votes were nearly three times the number of registered voters, suggesting significant electoral fraud. This move reflected the growing political and economic power of the Anglo-American community centered in El Paso proper.

The Salt War of San Elizario (1877)

Background and Context

The San Elizario Salt War, also known as the Salinero Revolt or El Paso Salt War, was an extended and complex range war of the mid-19th century that revolved around the ownership and control of immense salt lakes at the base of the Guadalupe Mountains in West Texas San Elizario Salt War – Wikipedia. For centuries, the salt lakes east of El Paso had been a free source of salt for local residents Salt War Historical Marker.

The Political Struggle

What began in 1866 as a political and legal struggle among Anglo Texan politicians and capitalists gave rise in 1877 to an armed struggle by ethnic Mexican and Tejano inhabitants living on both sides of the Rio Grande near El Paso San Elizario Salt War – Wikipedia. The conflict involved several key figures:

W.W. Mills initially filed his own claims to the salt beds and formed a group that became known as the Salt Ring El Paso Salt Wars (U.S. National Park Service).

Albert J. Fountain had a falling out with Mills, later became the leader of the opposing Anti Salt Ring. He was elected to the Texas Senate with the expectation of securing title to the salt deposits for the people of the El Paso area El Paso Salt Wars (U.S. National Park Service).

Louis Cardis and Charles Howard became central figures in the escalating conflict. Cardis and Mills soon joined forces with Charles Howard, a Missouri lawyer. Cardis helped secure Howard’s election to district attorney, but later became bitter enemies with him after Howard filed on the salt lakes for himself El Paso Salt Wars (U.S. National Park Service).

Escalation to Violence

The situation became explosive when Howard claimed ownership of the salt deposits that local Mexican and Hispanic communities had used freely for generations. These actions outraged Mexican citizens El Paso Salt Wars (U.S. National Park Service) who saw this as an attack on their traditional rights.

In 1877, the conflict reached its violent climax. On November 5, 1877 Texas Rangers under the command of John Tayes and John Jones arrived in the El Paso area to quell the San Elizario Salt Wars Rangers at Salt War – Refusing to Forget, but this intervention resulted in one of the few Ranger defeats Rangers at Salt War – Refusing to Forget.

The Salt War represented a bloody racial and cultural conflict that, as contemporary sources noted, had little to do with salt itself but everything to do with Anglo-Mexican tensions, personality conflicts, and the breakdown of law enforcement in the region. The conflict involved mob violence, rape, robbery, and murder, with traditional legal structures proving inadequate to control the situation.

The war finally ended when Fort Bliss, which had been closed, was reestablished, and six months of bloodshed was brought to a halt through military intervention.

The Railroad Era and Frontier Boomtown (1881-1900)

The Transformative Arrival

Most authorities agree that the arrival of the railroads in 1881 and 1882 was the single most significant event in El Paso history. The arrival of four major railroad lines—the Southern Pacific, Texas and Pacific, Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe, and the Mexican National Railroad—transformed El Paso from a sleepy adobe village of several hundred inhabitants into a flourishing frontier community.

By the 1890 census, the population had exploded to more than 10,000, representing more than a ten-fold increase from pre-railroad days. This rapid growth established El Paso as a major transportation and commercial hub connecting the eastern United States with the Pacific Coast and Mexico.

Industrial Development

The railroad era brought significant industrial development to El Paso. In 1887, the Kansas City Smelting and Refining Company constructed a large copper smelter west of town, established by Robert Safford Towne for processing lead and copper ore imported from Mexico. This facility was subsequently purchased by the American Smelting and Refining Company (ASARCO) in 1899, becoming a major local employer for decades.

Around this smelting facility, two small settlements developed, acquiring the Hispanicized name “La Esmelda” or “Smeltertown.” The Catholic parish of Santa Rosalía y San José del Río served these predominantly Mexican-American communities.

Cultural and Educational Development

The cosmopolitan community that emerged during the railroad boom established numerous educational and cultural institutions. Notable developments included:

• Temple Mt. Sinai: The first Reform synagogue, built in 1898, serving the growing Jewish community that dated from at least the 1880s
• El Paso Symphony Orchestra: Established during this period, it became the oldest symphony orchestra in Texas
• Educational institutions: Various schools and academies catering to the diverse population
• Catholic development: The American Catholic hierarchy gradually established control over the El Paso Valley, with Jesuit priests developing a network of parishes and schools during the 1880s-1910s

Jesuit Educational Network

The Jesuit Order played a crucial role in educational and religious development. Father Carlos Pinto (1841-1919), known as “the apostle of El Paso,” was particularly notable for his work among the Mexican population. A native of southern Italy, Pinto arrived in Northern New Mexico and Colorado in the 1870s before being assigned to El Paso around 1890.

Pinto established several important parishes:

• Immaculate Conception (1893): El Paso’s first English-speaking Catholic Parish
• Sacred Heart/Sagrado Corazón (1893): El Paso’s first Spanish-speaking Catholic Parish
• St. Ignatius (1905)
• Guardian Angel (1908)
• Holy Family (1914)

Working with the Sisters of Loretto at the Foot of the Cross, the Jesuits established schools at these parishes, creating a distinctive architectural style that has yet to attract serious historical research. The Jesuit High School in Ysleta was briefly expanded into a junior college in the mid-twentieth century.

The Dark Side of Frontier Life

As El Paso became a western boomtown, it also acquired the nickname “Six Shooter Capital” and “Sin City.” Scores of saloons, dance halls, gambling establishments, and houses of prostitution lined the main streets. The town attracted not only merchants, entrepreneurs, and professionals seeking to benefit from the Mexican Free Trade zone and opportunities in respiratory health treatment (various sanatoriums were established for those seeking cures in the warm, dry climate), but also gamblers, gunfighters, thieves, murderers, and prostitutes.

Law and Order: Dallas Stoudenmire

To combat the lawlessness, El Paso hired Dallas Stoudenmire as town marshal. Stoudenmire had a reputation for shooting first and asking questions later. The famous “Four Dead in Five Seconds Gunfight” took place on April 14, 1881, prior to the more famous Gunfight at the O.K. Corral in Tombstone, Arizona.

Stoudenmire was the sixth marshal hired in eight months, brought in to “clean” and tame the violent frontier town. His effectiveness came from his fierce reputation and skill with pistols, using fear and intimidation to control both criminals and the City Council itself.

In a dramatic confrontation on May 28, 1882, when the City Council announced they were firing him, Stoudenmire entered the Council Chambers and terrorized the members into submission. Drawing and twirling his pistols, he threatened: “I can straddle every God-damn aldermen on this council!” The terrified Council members quickly voted unanimously to retain Stoudenmire as town marshal.

Immigration and Diversity

The railroad boom attracted diverse immigrant communities to El Paso:

• Jewish immigrants: Establishing businesses and religious institutions
• Italian immigrants: Contributing to the cultural and economic life of the city
• Chinese immigrants: Creating a small but notable community
• Mexican immigrants: Drawn by economic opportunities in the growing city

This multicultural mix created a unique frontier environment that distinguished El Paso from other Western boomtowns.

Economic Transformation

With the railroad connection, El Paso became a center of international trade and a gateway to Mexico. The city’s strategic location allowed it to benefit from:

• Mexican Free Trade zone activities
• Mining operations in Mexico, New Mexico, and Arizona
• Cattle and agricultural trade
• Transcontinental commerce between the East and West coasts

The proximity to Ciudad Juárez, where nightclubs, dance halls, and gambling establishments flourished, created additional economic opportunities and cultural exchanges across the border.

Reform and Modernization (1890s-1910)

Cleaning Up the Frontier Image

In the 1890s, reform-minded citizens began campaigning to curb El Paso’s most visible forms of vice and lawlessness. Forward-thinking business leaders recognized that the town’s evil reputation might jeopardize its long-term economic prospects.

Initially, city fathers had exploited the town’s reputation by permitting vice in exchange for licensing fees and taxes. However, as the city matured and sought respectability, attitudes began to change. In 1905, the city finally enacted ordinances closing houses of gambling and prostitution.

Prostitution and gambling had flourished until World War I, when the Department of the Army pressured El Paso authorities to crack down on vice. Many of these activities simply moved across the border to Ciudad Juárez, especially during Prohibition, which benefited bars and saloons on the Mexican side of the border.

Population Growth and Development

After 1900, El Paso began shedding its frontier image and developing as a modern municipality and significant industrial, commercial, and transportation center. The city’s population grew dramatically:

• 1900: 15,906
• 1910: 39,279
• 1925: 77,560

This rapid growth was fueled by several factors:

• Geographic location as a gateway to Mexico
• Proximity to mining areas in Mexico, New Mexico, and Arizona
• Abundant natural resources
• Plentiful supply of inexpensive Mexican labor
• The exodus of refugees fleeing the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920)

The Mexican Revolution Era (1910-1920)

Border Violence and Intrigue

The Mexican Revolution brought intense fighting to Ciudad Juárez, with occasional stray shots killing civilians on the El Paso side of the border. El Paso became a center of revolutionary intrigue, as various exiled leaders including Victoriano Huerta and (for a time) Pancho Villa were seen in the city.

In January 1914, General John Joseph Pershing was stationed at Fort Bliss, where he assumed responsibility for security along the border. Following Pancho Villa’s infamous raid on Columbus, New Mexico on March 9, 1916, Pershing mounted the ill-fated Pancho Villa Expedition against the revolutionary leader.

Mexican Refugee Community Development

During this period, many refugees from Mexico fled to El Paso to escape the violence and economic disruption of the Revolution. A significant Mexican middle class population developed cultural, social, and educational institutions catering to their needs, particularly in central El Paso and the Sunset Heights area.

Notable institutions established by the Mexican exile community included:

• Ateneo Porfirio Díaz: Cultural and educational center
• Casino Mexicano: Social club housed in the Toltec Building
• Professor Servando Esquivel’s Colegio Palmore: Educational institution
• Colegio de las Hermanas de Jesús y María: Religious school

Jesuit Expansion

The Jesuit Order, expelled from Mexico during the Revolution, played an important role in developing community institutions and schools in El Paso, working alongside American and Italian Jesuits already active in the region. They staffed parishes including Santo Angel, San Ignacio, and Sagrado Corazón in South El Paso, as well as Sagrada Familia in Sunset Heights, and maintained a chapel in Smeltertown.

Cultural Renaissance

South El Paso Street became the premier artistic and cultural center of Mexican El Paso, featuring over a dozen cinemas and theaters that showed the latest films alongside vaudeville performers, tandas skits, carpas comics, nightclubs, and occasional touring Spanish-language theatrical and opera companies, including performances by the grande dame of the Mexican stage, Virginia Fábregas.

Mexican cinemas in El Paso played a crucial role in the development of movie subtitles. Around the start of the 20th century, bilingual interpreters called out Spanish translations of English-language American movies, which gradually evolved into on-screen translations.

Azteca Films, a leading production company in mid-20th century Mexico, was housed in El Paso during the 1930s-1950s, bringing premiere screenings featuring stars like María Félix to South El Paso street theaters.

Agricultural Development

The completion of Elephant Butte Dam in 1916 in New Mexico ensured a steady water supply for agricultural development in the El Paso region, helping cotton become the predominant local crop and supporting the expansion of irrigated agriculture that built on centuries of water management expertise.

The Taft-Díaz Summit and Assassination Attempt (1909)

Historic Presidential Meeting

In 1909, President William Howard Taft and Mexican President Porfirio Díaz planned a summit in El Paso, Texas, and Ciudad Juárez, Mexico—a historic first meeting between a U.S. president and a Mexican president, and the first time an American president would cross the border into Mexico.

Security Concerns

Tensions rose on both sides of the border, including assassination threats, prompting massive security preparations. The protection detail included:

• Texas Rangers
• 4,000 U.S. and Mexican troops
• U.S. Secret Service agents
• FBI agents
• U.S. marshals

The Assassination Attempt

Frederick Russell Burnham, the celebrated scout, was placed in charge of a 250-man private security detail hired by John Hays Hammond, a nephew of Texas Ranger John Coffee Hays. Hammond owned large investments in Mexico, was a close friend of Taft from Yale, and had been a U.S. vice-presidential candidate in 1908.

On October 16, the day of the summit, Burnham and Private C.R. Moore discovered a man holding a concealed palm pistol standing at the El Paso Chamber of Commerce building along the procession route. Burnham and Moore captured, disarmed, and arrested the would-be assassin within only a few feet of Presidents Taft and Díaz, preventing what could have been an international catastrophe.

This incident demonstrated El Paso’s growing importance as a center of international diplomacy and cross-border relations.

World War I and Prohibition Era (1914-1933)

Wartime Impact

World War I brought significant changes to El Paso’s social and economic landscape. The city’s legal saloons were shuttered by wartime liquor policies and remained closed following the Armistice with the passage of the Dean Act, a statewide prohibition law that remained in effect until 1935.

Prohibition and Border Trade

El Paso’s proximity to Juárez, where nightclubs, dance halls, gambling establishments, and alcohol remained legal, transformed the city into a major hub in the illicit liquor trade during both state and nationwide Prohibition (1920-1933).

Between 1920 and 1933, there were hundreds of shootouts between area law enforcement officers and smugglers in and around El Paso, resulting in deaths of numerous local and federal officers and countless bootleggers. Simultaneously, the narcotics trade along the Rio Grande flourished, setting the stage for drug wars that would plague the region in decades to come.

Paradoxically, Prohibition provided a boost to El Paso’s legitimate economy by stimulating a growing tourist trade, as Americans crossed the border to patronize the drinking and gambling establishments in Juárez.

Business Development

Despite the challenges of the era, several important businesses and institutions were established:

Conrad Hilton opened his first high-rise hotel in El Paso in 1930—the Plaza Hotel. The Plaza Theatre opened on September 12, 1930, becoming a major cultural venue for the region.

Aviation Development: In 1934, Walter Varney and Louis Mueller established Varney Speed Lines passenger airline in El Paso, operating from the old El Paso Municipal Airport (1934-36) and later El Paso International Airport. When Robert Six took over the airline in 1937, he relocated headquarters to Denver, Colorado, and renamed it Continental Airlines. Although Continental’s headquarters moved to Denver, El Paso remained a major hub for the airline until the late 1980s.

The Great Depression and New Deal Era (1929-1941)

Economic Challenges

The Great Depression severely affected El Paso, halting the boom years that had characterized the early 20th century. Many residents moved away, seeking opportunities in other parts of the West, particularly in Tucson and Phoenix, which experienced growth during the 1940s thanks to defense industries established there.

Forced Repatriation

Between 1931 and 1934, El Paso experienced an influx of Mexicans and Mexican Americans who had been expelled from other parts of the United States during the massive “repatriation” campaigns. Approximately 400,000 people of Mexican descent were forcibly “repatriated” during this period, with many passing through or settling in El Paso.

New Deal Programs

Federal New Deal programs provided crucial assistance during the Depression:

Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) and the Works Projects Administration (WPA) employed many unemployed residents in public works projects, including:

• Construction and improvement of public buildings
• Road construction and infrastructure development
• Construction of Scenic Drive
• The privately funded Cristo Rey shrine and road project

Sports and Culture

The Sun Bowl college football game began in El Paso in 1936, becoming the second-oldest bowl game in the nation (after the Rose Bowl). This annual event helped establish El Paso’s reputation as a regional entertainment and sports center.

World War II and Post-War Transformation (1941-1960)

German Rocket Scientists at Fort Bliss

After World War II, El Paso played a crucial role in America’s space program. Wernher von Braun and other German rocket scientists were brought to Fort Bliss, along with many V-2 rockets and rocket parts, launching the American rocket program. The scientists were later relocated to Huntsville, Alabama, but one V-2 rocket remains on display at Fort Bliss as a testament to this important chapter in scientific history.

The Margarita Connection

The popular cocktail known as the Margarita has strong ties to El Paso. It is claimed to have been first mixed in the El Paso-Juárez area at Tommy’s Place Bar on July 4, 1945, by Francisco “Pancho” Morales. Morales had left bartending in Mexico to become a U.S. citizen and is listed in the Texas Almanac’s Sesquicentennial Edition under notable Texan obituaries. His story was captured in an October 1973 Texas Monthly article “The Man Who Invented the Margarita” by Brad Cooper.

Post-War Urban Expansion

From World War II through the 1980s, El Paso grew rapidly into a sprawling modern city. Several factors contributed to this expansion:

Fort Bliss Expansion: The military installation grew from a frontier post to a major Cold War military center, bringing thousands of soldiers, dependents, and retirees to the area.

Industrial Economy: The local economy was dominated by:

• Copper smelting (ASARCO operations)
• Oil refining (Standard Oil Company of Texas, later Chevron USA, and Texaco established major refineries in 1928-1929)
• Low-wage industries, particularly garment manufacturing
• Food processing

Housing Development: New housing subdivisions expanded El Paso far to the west, northeast, and east of its original core areas, creating the suburban sprawl that characterizes the modern city.

Civil Rights Movement

With the election of Raymond Telles as the city’s first Hispanic mayor in 1957, the demand for civil rights among the Hispanic population intensified. The 1960s and 1970s saw significant progress:

Educational Integration: While African Americans were integrated into Texas Western College in 1954, greater changes came in the 1960s and 1970s as the city’s Mexican American population, largely under the leadership of LULAC (League of United Latin American Citizens) and Veterans’ Groups, worked to provide greater educational opportunities for Mexican American or Chicano youth.

Cultural Recognition: The movement emphasized pride in Mexican American heritage and worked to combat discrimination in education, employment, and public accommodations.

The Chamizal Dispute Resolution (1963)

Historical Background

The Chamizal dispute originated from changes in the course of the Rio Grande, which forms the international boundary between the United States and Mexico. As the river naturally shifted its channel over time, questions arose about the sovereignty of land areas that found themselves on different sides of the new river course.

Resolution

In 1963, the U.S. agreed to cede Chamizal, a long-disputed part of El Paso, to Mexico due to changes in the course of the Rio Grande. The resolution involved:

• Rationalizing the area boundaries
• Re-channeling the Rio Grande into a fixed course
• Re-developing a former island in the river

Memorial Establishment

The Chamizal National Memorial, administered by the National Park Service, was established as a major park in El Paso to commemorate the peaceful resolution of this international boundary dispute. El Chamizal serves as the corresponding park in Juárez, symbolizing international cooperation and peaceful resolution of territorial disputes.

Economic Development and Challenges (1960-1990)

The Maquiladora Era

Over the 1960s and 1970s, El Paso’s economy boomed, benefiting from:

• Low wages compared to other U.S. cities
• International border crossing facilities
• Regional transportation networks

The development of the maquiladora (twin-plant) industry in Ciudad Juárez significantly aided El Paso’s textile and clothing industry. Particularly successful were numerous clothing manufacturers and the sweatshops that serviced them, providing livelihoods to thousands of Mexican Americans and Mexicans.

However, growth was not without conflict. Mexican American and Mexican seamstresses sought to improve working conditions and organized labor unions, which business owners worked hard to defeat.

Economic Challenges Post-1990

Since 1990, the local economy faced several adverse effects:

Competition from Low-Wage Labor Abroad: Manufacturing jobs increasingly moved to countries with even lower labor costs than the El Paso region.

Industrial Closures: The closure of the main copper smelter occurred due to:

• Fluctuating metal prices
• Excessive lead contamination found throughout surrounding areas
• Environmental regulations

NAFTA Impact

The implementation of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1994 significantly affected the local economy:

Growth Sectors: Transport, retail, and service firms expanded significantly

Job Losses: Accelerated loss of many traditional industrial jobs as manufacturing moved to other regions with lower costs

Economic Sensitivity: El Paso became highly sensitive to changes in the Mexican economy and regulation of cross-border traffic. The Mexican peso devaluation of late 1994 and increasingly stringent controls on cross-border traffic after the September 11, 2001 attacks were felt strongly in El Paso.

Notably, contrary to popular belief and the experience of other border cities, commercial traffic at El Paso’s ports of entry continued uninterrupted during the immediate aftermath of 9/11, demonstrating the city’s critical importance to international trade.

Fort Bliss and Military Expansion (1849-Present)

Historical Significance

Since the 1849 establishment of Fort Bliss in the El Paso area, the military installation has played a significant role in local, national, and international affairs. The relationship between the city and the post has remained consistently close throughout more than 170 years of operation.

Modern Military Expansion

The military establishment was responsible for much of El Paso’s growth during the 1940s and 1950s. In 1986, military personnel comprised one-fourth of the city’s population and accounted for one out of every five dollars flowing through El Paso’s economy.

Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) Commission: The commission designated Fort Bliss to receive more than 30,000 additional soldiers, estimated to add $547 million to the El Paso economy. The expected influx of 100,000 people (30,000 soldiers and 70,000 dependents) represents a population increase not seen since the Mexican Exodus of the 1910s, when the town’s population grew by at least 60,000 refugees fleeing the Mexican Revolution.

Biggs Army Airfield Expansion: The city constructed a new “Inner Loop” (Loop 375 to Fred Wilson Avenue) connecting the eastern section of the city to the Army Airfield. Upon completion, Biggs Army Airfield is expected to be larger than the current space at Fort Bliss.

Military Facilities and Mission

Fort Bliss serves as home to:

• U.S. Army Air Defense Center
• William Beaumont General Hospital
• Various training and support facilities

The nearby White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico further augments El Paso’s military-related economy and establishes the region as a crucial center for national defense activities.

Educational Development

Early Educational Institutions

Public education in El Paso began with:

• Elementary school establishment in 1884
• High school establishment in 1885

Higher Education Evolution

Texas State School of Mines and Metallurgy: Opened in 1914, held its first commencement in 1916. The institution underwent several name changes:

• 1949: Changed to Texas Western College
• 1967: Became the University of Texas at El Paso (UTEP)

Architectural Significance: Several of UTEP’s original buildings were modeled on the Potala Palace of Lhasa, Tibet, creating a unique architectural style that distinguishes the campus.

Junior Colleges: El Paso has hosted several junior college initiatives:

• College of the City of El Paso (1918-1920)
• El Paso Junior College (1920-1927)
• El Paso Community College (established 1972, continuing today)

Cultural Institutions and Arts

Museums and Cultural Centers

El Paso Museum of Art: Established in 1947 as El Paso International Museum, it houses a significant collection of works by European Old Masters, including pieces by Botticelli, Filippo Lippi, Tintoretto, and Van Dyck.

El Paso Museum of History: Established in 1974 (originally the El Paso Cavalry Museum), it preserves and interprets the rich history of the El Paso region.

Music and Performance

El Paso Symphony Orchestra: One of the oldest symphony orchestras in Texas, tracing its roots back to 1893, it has provided cultural enrichment to the community for over a century.

Sun Bowl Festivities: The university sponsors the Sun Bowl, which includes not only the annual postseason college football game but also associated cultural festivities that bring visitors from across the nation.

Media and Communications

Newspapers: El Paso’s two major newspapers, the Times and the Herald Post, both date from the early 1880s, providing continuous coverage of local and regional news throughout the city’s modern development.

Public Transportation: The city has operated a public transportation system since 1882, adapting from horse-drawn vehicles to modern bus systems over more than 140 years.

Immigration and Border Relations

The Special Relationship with Mexico

A defining characteristic of El Paso has always been its special relationship with Mexico in general and Ciudad Juárez in particular. By 1983, El Paso-Juárez had become the largest binational urban area along the Mexican-American border.

Historic Cross-Border Events

Several major events have highlighted this unique relationship:

• Taft-Díaz Meeting (1909): The historic first presidential summit
• Taking of Ciudad Juárez (1911): Revolutionary forces of Francisco I. Madero captured the city
• Pancho Villa Activities: Including the Columbus, New Mexico raid and General Pershing’s punitive expedition of 1916
• Mexican Revolution Immigration: Both wealthy and poor Mexican families fled to El Paso during and after the Revolution
• Prohibition Era: Smuggling and bootlegging activities flourished across the border
• Chamizal Dispute Resolution (1964): Peaceful settlement of the territorial dispute

Modern Immigration Patterns

The relationship between El Paso and Mexico continues to evolve with changing immigration patterns, economic opportunities, and border security policies. The city serves as a major port of entry and maintains extensive cultural, economic, and family ties across the international boundary.

Demographics and Modern Development

Population Growth

El Paso’s population growth has been dramatic since the Mexican-American War:

• 1870s: 23 Anglos and 150 Hispanics reported
• 1930: 102,421 (peak before temporary decline)
• 1940: 96,810 (Depression-era decline)
• 1950: 130,003 (post-war recovery)
• 1960: 276,687 (more than doubled)
• 1970: 339,615 (steady growth)
• 1980: 425,259 (32% growth during 1970s)
• 1990: 515,342
• 2000: 563,662
• 2010: 649,121 (city), 800,647 (metro area)
• 2020: 678,815 (city), 868,859 (metro area)

Ethnic Composition

The population has always been predominantly Hispanic. In 1980, the population was 62.5 percent Spanish-surnamed, and the interaction between Spanish-Mexican and Anglo-American cultures continues to be the dominant feature of El Paso’s cultural identity.

As of 1980, other ethnic groups contributing to El Paso’s diversity included:

• Over 13,000 African Americans
• 3,315 Asian Americans
• 1,484 Native Americans

Economic Structure (1980s)

By 1980, El Paso’s economy had diversified significantly:

Workforce Distribution:

• Wholesale and retail trade: 23.3% of local workforce
• Professional services: 20.8%
• Government employees: 20.9%

Major Industries:

• Textiles and apparel manufacturing
• Tourism and hospitality
• Cement and building materials manufacturing
• Metal and petroleum refining
• Food processing
• Military-related activities

Notable Local Brands:

• Tony Lama boots (established local bootmaking company)
• Farah slacks (major clothing manufacturer)

Urban Development Projects

Recent citywide projects funded through bond elections have continued El Paso’s urban expansion:

Plaza Theatre Restoration: The complete refurbishment of the historic Plaza Theatre in Downtown El Paso was completed on March 17, 2006, at a cost of $38 million, restoring this important cultural landmark.

Transportation Infrastructure: Construction of new freeways on the city’s eastern edge has facilitated continued urban sprawl and suburban development.

Downtown Revitalization: Beginning in mid-2008, El Paso’s city council decided to reinvest in downtown with a comprehensive redevelopment initiative, recognizing the importance of a strong urban core.

Contemporary El Paso (2000-Present)

Modern Challenges and Opportunities

Contemporary El Paso faces both significant challenges and unique opportunities as a major border city:

Economic Challenges:

• Competition from overseas manufacturing
• Dependence on cross-border trade vulnerable to policy changes
• Environmental legacy issues from industrial development
• Need for economic diversification

Strategic Advantages:

• Strategic location for North American trade
• Bilingual, bicultural workforce
• Established transportation and logistics infrastructure
• Military installations providing economic stability
• Growing tourism and cultural sectors

Border Security and Trade

The September 11, 2001 attacks significantly impacted border operations, though El Paso maintained smoother cross-border commercial traffic than many other border cities. The city continues to balance security needs with its role as a major international trade gateway.

Cultural Preservation and Innovation

Modern El Paso works to preserve its unique multicultural heritage while developing new economic opportunities. The city’s blend of:

• Anglo-American Southwest culture
• Mexican traditions and customs
• Native American heritage (particularly Tigua community)
• Military and frontier history

This creates a distinctive cultural identity that attracts visitors, researchers, and new residents interested in authentic borderlands experiences.

The Tigua Nation Today

The Tigua pueblo at Ysleta continues to function under traditional tribal government led by the cacique and his captains. The tribe operates:

• A cultural center preserving traditional practices
• A casino providing economic opportunities
• Educational programs maintaining tribal identity

The Tiguas remain the only surviving native group in El Paso, observing celebrations that blend indigenous and Catholic traditions, maintaining a fragile but persistent connection to their pre-Columbian heritage.

Historic Preservation

Three Spanish Colonial churches continue to hold Catholic services and serve as vital community centers:

• Ysleta Mission (Corpus Christi de la Ysleta del Sur)
• Socorro Mission (Nuestra Señora de la Limpia Conceptión del Socorro)
• San Elizario Chapel

These represent some of the oldest continuously occupied religious sites in the United States and serve as living monuments to the region’s colonial heritage.

The Complete History of El Paso, Texas – Conclusion

Historic Preservation (Continued)

The Concordia Cemetery, established in the 1880s on land that was once part of the Stephenson-Azcárate family’s El Rancho de la Concordia, serves as a final resting place for many of the notable figures who shaped El Paso’s development. The cemetery reflects the multicultural nature of the city, containing graves marked in Spanish, English, Chinese, and other languages, representing the diverse communities that built modern El Paso.

21st Century El Paso: A Global Border Metroplex

Economic Transformation

In the 21st century, El Paso has evolved into a major component of the Paso del Norte metropolitan area, which includes Las Cruces, New Mexico, and Ciudad Juárez, Mexico. This trinational urban region represents one of the largest bilingual, binational metropolitan areas in the world, with a combined population exceeding 2.7 million people.

The modern economy has diversified beyond its traditional dependence on military installations and cross-border trade to include:

• Advanced manufacturing and aerospace industries
• Healthcare and medical services
• Higher education and research
• Technology and telecommunications
• Renewable energy development
• International logistics and transportation

Educational Excellence

The University of Texas at El Paso (UTEP) has emerged as a major research university, particularly noted for its engineering, business, and health science programs. The university’s student body reflects the region’s demographics, with over 80% of students being of Hispanic heritage, making it one of the most successful Hispanic-serving institutions in the United States.

El Paso Community College continues to provide accessible higher education opportunities, while the region’s public school districts have worked to address the educational needs of a rapidly growing and economically diverse population.

Cultural Renaissance

Contemporary El Paso has experienced a cultural renaissance, embracing its unique position as a bridge between cultures. The city has developed a thriving arts scene that includes:

• The El Paso Museum of Art’s expansion and enhanced programming
• A growing community of local artists and galleries
• Annual festivals celebrating both Hispanic and Anglo cultural traditions
• Preservation of historical architecture alongside modern development
• Recognition as a UNESCO Creative City of Crafts and Folk Art in 2019

Modern Challenges and Resilience

El Paso has faced significant challenges in recent decades, including the tragic mass shooting at a Walmart store on August 3, 2019, which claimed 23 lives and wounded dozens more. The community’s response demonstrated the resilience and unity that have characterized El Paso throughout its history, with residents of all backgrounds coming together to support victims and reject hatred.

The city continues to address ongoing challenges including:

• Water scarcity in the desert environment
• Infrastructure needs to support continued growth
• Economic inequality and educational opportunity gaps
• Border security concerns while maintaining cross-border relationships
• Environmental remediation from decades of industrial activity

The Future of El Paso

As El Paso approaches the 500th anniversary of European contact and the 200th anniversary of Mexican independence, the city stands at another historical crossroads. The fundamental characteristics that have defined El Paso throughout its history remain relevant:

Geographic Advantage: El Paso’s location continues to make it a natural hub for North American trade and cultural exchange.

Multicultural Identity: The city’s ability to blend different cultural traditions while maintaining distinct community identities provides a model for 21st-century American urbanism.

Resilience and Adaptation: From ancient native peoples to Spanish colonists, from Mexican citizens to American pioneers, from railroad builders to modern immigrants, El Paso’s residents have consistently demonstrated the ability to adapt to changing circumstances while preserving essential community values.

International Perspective: As Mexico, the United States, and Canada continue to develop closer economic relationships, El Paso’s experience as a border city provides valuable insights for managing international cooperation and competition.

Conclusion: El Paso’s Enduring Legacy

The history of El Paso spans more than two millennia, from the ancient peoples who first recognized the strategic value of “the pass of the north” to the modern metropolitan area that serves as a bridge between nations and cultures. Throughout this long history, certain themes emerge consistently:

The importance of water in shaping settlement patterns, from the earliest native peoples to the modern city’s continued dependence on carefully managed water resources from the Rio Grande and underground aquifers.

The strategic significance of location, as El Paso has served successively as a corridor for native trade networks, Spanish colonial expansion, Mexican territorial control, American westward expansion, railroad development, and modern international commerce.

The complexity of cultural interaction, as different peoples—Native American, Spanish, Mexican, Anglo-American, African American, and others—have created a unique regional culture that maintains distinct traditions while fostering cooperation and shared community identity.

The persistence of community, as families and institutions established in El Paso have maintained their presence through multiple political transitions, economic boom-and-bust cycles, and social transformations.

The capacity for reinvention, as El Paso has repeatedly transformed itself from frontier outpost to colonial mission center, from Mexican border town to American railroad hub, from copper smelting center to modern international metropolis.

Today’s El Paso builds on all of these historical foundations while facing the opportunities and challenges of the 21st century. The city’s success in navigating future developments will depend on maintaining the adaptability, cultural openness, and community resilience that have characterized its long and complex history.

As the sun sets over the Franklin Mountains and lights begin to twinkle across the Rio Grande valley from Las Cruces to Ciudad Juárez, the vista encompasses a metropolitan area whose history encompasses the breadth of North American experience. From the ancient peoples who first called this place home to the modern residents who continue to build its future, El Paso remains what it has always been: a place where different worlds meet, interact, and create something new while honoring the past.

The pass of the north continues to serve its ancient function as a gateway—not just between geographic regions, but between historical eras, cultural traditions, and human possibilities. In this sense, El Paso’s greatest contributions to American and world history may still lie ahead, as the lessons learned from centuries of cross-cultural cooperation and adaptation provide guidance for an increasingly interconnected world.

This history of El Paso, Texas, represents the collective story of countless individuals—native peoples, Spanish colonists, Mexican citizens, American pioneers, immigrants from around the world—who have called this region home. Their experiences, struggles, achievements, and dreams have created modern-day El Paso, a city that continues to honor its past while building its future.

References and Sources

• References and Sources
• Online Resources and Digital Archives
• digie.org – Digital archives containing biographical information and historical records of Jake Erlich’s early life in El Paso
• Wikipedia – Jack Earle – Wikipedia entries on Jack Earle containing filmography, biographical details, and career information
• All That’s Interesting – Articles about Jake’s circus career and his billing as “World’s Tallest Man”
• Utne Reader – Features on Jake’s artistic legacy and recognition by cultural institutions
• Museums and Cultural Institutions
• American Museum of Natural History – New York Museum of Natural History permanent collection includes Jake Erlich’s paintings, photographs, and sculptural works
• Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences – Silent film archives including Jake’s filmography
• El Paso Museum of History – Local historical records and photographs
• Circus World Museum – Documentation of American circus history and performers
• Historical and Educational Organizations
• El Paso Historical Society – Local historical records and photographs
• Pituitary Foundation – Medical information about gigantism and pituitary tumors
• Library of Congress – Historical film and entertainment archives
• Texas State Historical Association – Texas historical documentation and records
• Entertainment Industry Archives
• Internet Movie Database (IMDb) – Comprehensive filmography and career information
• Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey – Historical circus archives and performer records
• Silent Film Archive – Documentation of silent era performers and films
• Variety Magazine Archives – Entertainment industry coverage of his film and circus careers
• Academic and Research Resources
• Circus Historical Society – Documentation of American circus history and performers
• National Library of Medicine – Medical research on gigantism and pituitary conditions
• University of Texas at El Paso Library – Local history and regional archives
• Smithsonian Institution – Cultural and historical documentation
• Published Works and Books
• Amazon – The Long Shadows by Andrew Erlich – Biographical novel by Jake’s nephew, Dr. Andrew Erlich
• WorldCat – Library catalog for locating Jake’s original poetry book “The Long Shadows” (1952)
• Google Books – Digital access to historical books and publications
• Archive.org – Internet Archive with historical documents and publications
• Newspapers and Periodicals
• Newspapers.com – Historical newspaper archives including El Paso Times obituary and coverage
• NewspaperArchive.com – Additional historical newspaper coverage
• El Paso Times – Local newspaper with historical archives
• Billboard Magazine Archives – Circus and entertainment industry coverage
• Music and Cultural References
• Tom Waits Official Site – Information about “Get Behind The Mule” song referencing Jake Erlich
• AllMusic – Music database with song references and cultural connections
• Discogs – Music database and cultural reference archive
• Genealogy and Family History
• FamilySearch – Genealogical records and family history documentation
• Ancestry.com – Family trees and historical records
• Find a Grave – Cemetery records and burial information
• Ellis Island Records – Immigration records for Jake’s parents
• Medical and Scientific Resources
• National Institute of Health – Medical research on growth disorders and gigantism
• Mayo Clinic – Medical information about pituitary disorders
• Rare Disease Database – Information on rare growth conditions
• PubMed – Medical literature and research papers
• El Paso Museum of History, “Jake Erlich – El Paso, Texas”digie.org.
• El Paso County Historical Society, “Jake Erlich – Tallest Man in the World”digie.orgdigie.org.
• Wikipedia, Jack Earleen.wikipedia.orgen.wikipedia.org.
• Kaleena Fraga, “Who Were The Tallest People Ever? Meet 11 Of The Tallest Men And Women Of All Time,” AllThat’sInteresting.comallthatsinteresting.comallthatsinteresting.com.
• Andrew Erlich, “The Long Shadows: Story of Jack Earle,” Utne (2012)utne.com.